LET'S LEARN PLANTS
Friday, 21 March 2025
Thursday, 6 March 2025
Monday, 3 March 2025
Metabolism
Metabolism
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical transformations taking place in a cell or organism.
- The degradative phase of metabolism
- Organic nutrient molecules (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) are converted into smaller, simpler end products (such as lactic acid, CO2, NH3)
- Release energy:
- A part is conserved in the form of ATP and reduced electron carriers (NADH, NADPH, and FADH2)
- The rest is lost as heat
- The biosynthetic phase of metabolism
- Small, simple precursors are built up into larger and more complex molecules (lipids, polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids)
- Require input of energy (phosphoryl group transfer potential of ATP and reducing power of NADH, NADPH, and FADH2)
- Converging catabolism: convert several starting materials into a single product
- Diverging anabolism: yielding multiple useful end products from a single precursor
- Cyclic pathway: one starting component is regenerated in a series of reactions that converts another starting component into a product
- by controlling the accessibility of substrates
- by controlling the amounts of enzymes
- by controlling their catalytic activities
- At low substrate concentration (near or below Km), rate of reaction depends on substrate concentration.
- Controlling the flux of substrates also regulates metabolism.
- The transfer of substrates from one compartment of a cell to another (e.g., from the cytosol to mitochondria) can serve as a control point.
- Compartmentalization segregates opposed reactions. For example, fatty acid oxidation takes place in mitochondria, whereas fatty acid synthesis takes place in the cytosol.
- The amount of a particular enzyme depends on:
- its rate of synthesis
- its rate of degradation
- The level of most enzymes is adjusted primarily by changing the rate of transcription of the genes encoding them.
- Reversible allosteric control: Key enzymes in many biosynthetic pathways is allosterically inhibited by a metabolic intermediate or coenzyme or the ultimate product of the pathway.
- Reversible covalent modification: Activation/deactivation of enzymes by phosphorylation/deposphorylation of particular residues.
- Hormones-mediated reversible modification of key enzymes: Hormones or growth factors coordinate metabolic relations between different tissues, often by regulating the reversible modification of key enzymes.
Thursday, 23 January 2025
Classification of the Bryophytes (Goffinet, Buck and Shaw; 2008)
Mosses display a wide range of structural diversity from which relationships and lineages can be inferred. Historically, bryophyte systematics has focused on peristome teeth complexity and sex organ distribution to define taxonomic units.
Modern classifications reflect systematic concepts proposed by Fleischer (1920) and Brotherus (1924, 1925), wherein the peristomate mosses were classified as follows:
- Nematodontous
- Arthrodontous
- Acrocarpous
- Pleurocarpous
- Haplolepideous
- Diplolepideous
Sphagnum, Andreaea, Andreaeobryum, and Takakia represent additional groupings distinguished by the presence of a pseudopodium and the mode of sporangial dehiscence.
The classification of the Bryophyta is undergoing constant revisions, particularly in the light of phylogenetic inferences. The classification proposed by Goffinet, Buck, and Shaw (2008) builds on those presented by Buck & Goffinet (2000) and Goffinet & Buck (2004). Their classification is outlined below:
BRYOPHYTA
SUPERCLASS I
CLASS TAKAKIOPSIDA: Leaves divided into terete filaments; capsules dehiscent by a single longitudinal spiral slit; stomata lacking. Example: Takakia
SUPERCLASS II
CLASS SPHAGNOPSIDA: Branches usually in fascicles; leaves composed of a network of chlorophyllose and hyaline cells; setae lacking; capsules elevated on a pseudopodium; stomata lacking. Example: Sphagnum
SUPERCLASS III
CLASS ANDREAEOPSIDA: Plants on acidic rocks, generally autoicous; cauline central strand absent; calyptrae small; capsules valvate, with four valves attached at apex; seta absent, pseudopodium present; stomata lacking. Example: Andreaea
CLASS ANDREAEOBRYOPSIDA: Plants on calcareous rocks, dioicous; cauline central strand lacking; calyptrae large and covering whole capsule; capsules valvate, apex eroding and valves free when old; stomata lacking; seta present. Example: Andreaeobryum
SUPERCLASS V
CLASS OEDIPODIOPSIDA: Leaves unicostate; calyptrae cucullate; capsule symmetric and erect, neck very long; stomata lacking; capsules gymnostomous. Example: Oedipodium
CLASS POLYTRICHOPSIDA: Plants typically robust, dioicous; cauline central strand present; stems typically rhizomatous; costa broad, with adaxial chlorophyllose lamellae; peristome nematodontous, mostly of (16)32–64 teeth. Example: Polytrichum
CLASS TETRAPHIDOPSIDA: Leaves unicostate; calyptrae small conic; capsule symmetric and erect, neck short; peristome nematodontous, of four erect teeth. Example: Tetraphis
CLASS BRYOPSIDA: Plants small to robust; leaves costate or not, typically lacking lamellae; capsules operculate; peristome at least partially arthrodontous. Example: Bryum
Features of the classification system:
- The rank of superclass is adopted to unite all arthrodontous mosses in one taxon (i.e. Superclass V).
- Although this system of classification aimed at accepting only monophyletic taxa, given the limited number of ranks available, paraphyletic taxa were incorporated (e.g. Bryanae).
- Effort was made to resolve the relationships among genera of the Hypnanae.
- Due to the lack of sequence data and availability of information of many taxa at regional level only, the authors have been unable to expand their classification system to a global scale.
Further reading:
Buck WR, Shaw AJ, Goffinet B. Morphology, anatomy, and classification of the Bryophyta. In: Bryophyte Biology: Second Edition, ed. B. Goffinet & A. J. Shaw. Cambridge University Press; 2008. p. 55–138.
Economic Importance of Bryophyte
- Terrariums and vivariums
- Floral arrangements and bouquets
- Ground cover and landscaping
- Indoor and outdoor containers
- Unique textures and colors
- Low maintenance
- Versatile
- Sustainable and eco-friendly
- Air purification
- Traditional Medicine: In some cultures, bryophytes are used in traditional medicine to treat various ailments.
- Food Source: In some parts of the world, like Japan and Hawaii, mosses are considered a delicacy and are eaten raw or cooked.
- Supplements: Some bryophytes, like Sphagnum, are used as dietary supplements due to their high nutritional value.
- Air Quality Indicators
- Water Quality Indicators
- Soil Quality Indicators
- Heavy Metal Accumulation: Bryophytes can accumulate heavy metals, such as lead and mercury, in their tissues, indicating pollution levels.
- pH Tolerance: Bryophytes can tolerate a wide range of pH levels, making them useful indicators of soil and water acidity.
- Sensitivity to Pollutants: Bryophytes are sensitive to pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide and ozone, making them useful indicators of air pollution.
- Sphagnum: Indicates acidic and oxygen-poor conditions.
- Polytrichum: Indicates dry and nutrient-poor conditions.
- Marchantia: Indicates moist and nutrient-rich conditions
- Dried Mosses: Dried mosses, such as Sphagnum, have been used as packing materials for fragile items, like glassware and electronics.
- Insulation: Bryophytes have been used as insulation materials in buildings, reducing heat loss and energy consumption.
- Shipping Live Materials: Bryophytes have been used to keep live materials, like plants and animals, moist and secure during shipping.
- Chinking Material: Bryophytes, like Sphagnum, have been used as chinking materials to seal gaps between logs in log cabins.
- Roofing Material: Bryophytes have been used as roofing materials, providing insulation and waterproofing.
- Wall Construction: Bryophytes have been used as a component in wall construction, providing insulation and structural support.
- Fire prevention: Nordic people used the aquatic moss Fontinalis antipyretica between the chimney and walls to prevent fires.
- Sustainable
- Eco-Friendly
- Insulation Properties
- Fire Resistance
- A layer of Sphagnum is used in hiking boots for cushioning the foot and absorbing moisture and odor. Dry Sphagnum is used in diapers and in cradles to keep babies clean and warm.
- It is also used to make beddings, mattresses, cushions, and pillows by stuffing mosses into coarse linen sacks.
- Bryophytes are used as model organisms in scientific research, particularly in the fields of ecology, evolution, and developmental biology.
- They are also used in educational settings to teach students about plant biology, ecology, and conservation.
Role of Bryophytes in Ecology and Plant Succession
The ability of bryophytes to stabilize soil, to trap and hold moisture, to exchange cations, and to tolerate desiccation together with their high totipotency makes them a very important contributor in plant succession and ecology.
Succession is an orderly sequence of changes in an open habitat in which organisms interact with the environment for development of a stable and climax community.
Plant succession taking place on a particular habitat is called a sere, its various intermediate stages are called seral stages, and the communities representing the stages are called seral communities.
The importance of bryophytes in ecology and plant succession is outlined below:
As aids in soil conservation:
Mosses prevent sheet erosion of soil. They grow densely forming a mat or carpet-like structure. It bears the impact of the falling raindrops, holds much of the rainwater, and thus the amount of run-off water is considerably reduced. The intertwined moss stems and the underground rhizoids firmly binds the soil particles together to a considerable depth of around 6 to 8 inches. This minimizes soil erosion even on steep hill sides.
Formation of soil and vegetation cover:
In a xeric succession which begins on a bare rock surface the bryophytes, mosses in particular, form an important seral community. The bryophytes and the lichens in the primary succession led to soil formation through accumulation of organic matters and prepare rocky out crops for secondary succession of herbs, shrubs, and trees. The pioneer community is the crustose lichen and followed by the first seral community, the folios lichen. Acid secreted by lichens attack the rock and provide bits of soil. Additional soil particles maybe formed by weathering or be blown in from somewhere else. Thus, the accumulation of soil particles, organic matter, and humus results in the development of a fine soil layer over the underlying rock. This favors the entrance and colonization of mosses, thus beginning the moss stage.